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THE CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY

VOLUME V. CONTEST OF EMPIRE AND PAPACY - THE CRUSADES

Planned by J B Bury, M.A., F.B.A.
Regius Professor of Modern History

Edited by J R Tanner, Litt. D.
C W Previté-Orton, M.A.
Z N Brooke, M.A.

Volume V. CONTEST OF EMPIRE AND PAPACY - THE CRUSADES

1. (a) The Italian Cities; (b) The Norman conquest of Italy and Sicily. 2. Corruption of the Church: Cluniac movement. 3. Gregory VII and the Investiture Contest. 4. Civil and Canon Law. 5. Germany under Henry IV and Henry V. 6. (a) Islam and Egypt, (750-1097) ; (b) The First Crusade. 7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem. 8. The Military Orders. 9. Germany, (1125-1152). 10. Italy, (1125-1152). 11. Frederick Barbarossa and Germany. 12. (a) Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard League; (b) South Italy in the twelfth century. 13. England: Norman kings (William II to Stephen). 14. England: Henry VI. 15. France and the Angevin dominion. 16. France and the Communal movement. 17. England. 18. Scholasticism. 19. Effects of the Crusades on Western Europe. 20. The Monastic orders. 21. Roman and Canon Law in the Middle Ages. 22. Medieval Schools to c. 1300. 23. Philosophy in the Middle Ages.

(Order of Chapter headings and/or topics as listed above may differ from the following.)

THE CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY - VOLUME V.
CONTENTS.

Introduction

Corrigenda

CH.I. THE REFORM OF THE CHURCH.

Decadence of the Church - Nilus; Romuald of Vienna - Richard of St Vannes. Symptoms of reform. Instances of corruption. Episcopal elections. Early stages of lay patronage. Royal encroachments on the Church. Evils in the episcopate. Simony. Secular canons. Rome. Benedict VIII. The Emperor Henry II. The Synod of Sutri. The Council of Rheims. The work of Leo's Pontificate. Contested succession to the Papacy. Election decree of 1059. Simoniacal ordinations. Events in Milan. Alexander II and Honorius II. Conciliar legislation. The commune at Milan.

CH. II. GREGORY VII and the First Contest Between the Empire and the Papacy.
Election and early life of Gregory VII. The Petrine authority. The supremacy of the spiritual power. The situation in 1073. The first decree against lay investiture. The Council of Worms. Excommunication of Henry IV. The Pope's neutrality. Papal legislation 1078-1079. Deposition of Henry IV 1080. COUNCIL OF BRIXEN. The anti-Pope Guibert. The alliance of the Pope with Robert Guiscard. Gregory's relations with France, England, and other states. The organisation of the Church. Papal victory in Italy. The question of schismatic ordinations. Urban IIs progress through north Italy and France. Pope Paschal II. The end of the schism. Lay investiture: settlements in France and England. Unsuccessful negotiations between Pope and King. The events of 1111. The Concordat of Worms. The enhanced position of the Papacy.

Ch. III. Germany under Henry IV and Henry V.
The royal office. The growth of feudalism. The royal domain. Alliance with he Episcopate. Henry's victory on the Unstrut 1075. His challenge to the Pope. His Excommunication and its results. The Diet of Tribur. Canossa. The First Crusade. The character of Henry V. Henry's first expedition to Italy: victory over the Pope. Archbishop Adalbert of Mayence. The revolts of 1113 and 1115. Ecclesiastical opposition in Germany. The Concordat of Worms.

CH. III. (a) The Conquest of south Italy and Sicily by the Normans.

Condition of Byzantine Italy. Arrival of the Normans. Defeat of the Byzantines. Robert Guiscard. Defeat of Pope Leo IX. Reconciliation with the Papacy. Treaty of Melfi. Conquest of Sicily. Estrangement from the Papacy. Discord among the Normans. Alliance with the Papacy. Eastern ambitions of Guiscard. Capture of Rome. Death of Guiscard.

(b) The Norman Kingdom of Sicily.
Roger II of Sicily. Creation of the kingdom of Sicily. East and West allied against Roger. Norman conquests in Africa. Treaty of Benevento. Alliance with the Papacy against the Empire. Marriage-alliance with the Hohenstaufen. Tancred and Henry VI. Organisation of the Norman kingdom. Admixture of East and West. Decay of the royal house.

CH. IV. The Italian States til c. 1200.
The medieval town. The towns in Lombard Italy. Ecclesiatical institutions. The development of the Carolingian Empire. Forification of the cities; Episcopal government. Growth of collective action. Proto-communes in the south. Classes in the northern cities. Foundation of the communes. Cultural and political influences. Supersession of feudal and state authorities. Conquest of the Contado. The rural communes. Development of commerce. Inter-city wars. The Trevisan march. The regalia; imperial diplomas. Counts, viscounts and bishops. The councils. Growth of city law. The milites and consorzerie. The pedites and gilds. Internal strife. The Podesta. Commerce and banking. Corporate life. The blood-feud.

CH. VI. Islam in Egypt and Syria.
Disinteration of the Caliphate. Shi'ite dynasties. Greek attacks on Syria. The Fatimites conquer Egypt. The Caliphate and the Empire. History of Aleppo. The Emperor Basil II. The Ruin of the Holy Sephulcre. Egypt and Syria. The Greeks in Syria. Turkish conquest of Syria. Recognition of the Abbasid caliphs. The Turks in Palestine. Turkish dissensions. Eve of the First Crusade. Raymond of Toulouse. Robert of Normandy. Treaty with Alexius. Siege of Nicaea. March through Asia Minor. Alliance with the Armenians. Bohemond Prince of Antioch. Godfrey, Prince of Jerusalem. Peter the Hermit.

CH. VIII. The KINGDOM of JERUSALEM.
Establshment of the Kingdom. The Assises of Jerusalem. Baldwin I and Baldwin II. Fulk. The military orders. The Second Crusade. Nur-ad-Din and Amaury I. Factions among the Franks. The Fall of Jerusalem. The Third Crusade. The Franks in Syria. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. John de Brienne and Frederick II. Dissensions among the Muslims. St Louis in Palestine. Last days of the Kingdom. The fall of Acre. End of the Latin Kingdom.

CH. IX. The Effects of the Crusades on Western Europe.
Increase of geographical knowledge. The Crusades and economic life. The conquests of Genoa, Venice and Pisa. Nationality and the Crusades. Revived study of Greek. Military results: check to Turkish advance. The Teutonic Knights.

CH. X. GERMANY: 1125-1152.
Election of Lothar of Supplinburg. Campaign in Bohemia. Possessions of the House of Welf. War with the Hohenstaufen. Destruction of Augsburg and Ulm. Ecclesiastical policy. Lothar and the Papal schism. Relations with Denmark. Death of Lothar III. Election of Conrad III. Hohenstaufen versus Welf. Siege of Weinsberg. Settlement of Frankfort 1142. Relations with Poland and Bohemia. Relations with Hungary. The Second Crusade. The Wendish Crusade. Growth of the power of Henry the Lion. Alliance with the Byzantine Empire. Last activities and death of Conrad. Failure of the reign. Lothar's second expedition. Alliance with Innocent II against the Normans. Success of Roger II. Communal uprising at Rome. Victory of the commune. Papal appeal to Germany. Arnold of Brescia. Proclamation of the Second Crusade. The hesitations of the Pope. Reaction of the Crusade on Italy. Diplomacy of the Emperor Manuel I. The pope and Roger II. The attitude of Conrad III. Preparations for his Italian expedition. Death of Conrad III.

CH. XII. Fredrick Barbarossa and Germany.
Frederick Barbarossa. His character. Landfrieden. Relations with Henry the Lion. Settlement of the duchy of Bavaria. The Danish civil war. Disturbances in the Duchy of Mayence. Feuds among the German princes. Relations with Bohemia, Poland and Hungary. Frederick's marriage with Beatrix of Burgundy. Diet of Besançon. Ecclesiastical policy. Frederick's claims. The German clergy and the Schism. Success of Frederick's ecclesiastical policy. Foreign relations. Subjection of the Wends. Progress of Christianity among the Wends. Foundation and prosperity of Lubeck. Oppressive rule of Henry the Lion. Breach between frederick and Duke Henry. The meeting at Chiavenna. Dismeberment of the duchies of Saxony and Bavaria. Submision and banishment of Henry. The Diet of Mayence. Quarrel with Pope Urban III. Rebellion of Archbishop Philip of Cologne. The Third Crusade. Death of Frederick Barbarossa.

CH. XIII. Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard League.
Barbarossa's early relations with the Papacy. Pope Hadrian IV. Rome and Sicily. Frederick and he Lombards. Execution of Arnold of Brescia. Meeting of King and Pope. Advance to Rome. Imperial coronation. Fighting at Rome. Frederick's return to Germany. Divisions among the cardinals. Papal peace with Sicily. The quarrel over beneficia. The diet of Roncaglia, 1158. Revolt of Milan. Renewed disputes between Pope and Emperor. Death of Hadrian IV. The Papal Schism. The standpoint of Alexander III. The Synod of Pavia. Capture and destruction of Milan. Alexander III takes refuge in France. Failure of Frederick's negotiations with Louis VII. Difficulties in Italy. The beginnings of the Lombard League. Return of Alexander III to Rome. Frederick's fourth expedition to Italy. Siege of Rome. Frederick's army destroyed by pestilence. Growing strength of Alexander III. Failure of negotiations. The battle of Legnano, 1176. Treaty of Agnani. End of the Schism. The Treaty of Venice, 1177. The Third Lateran Council. Death of Alexander III and election of Lucius III. The Peace of Constance, 1183. New causes of disagreement.

CH. XIV. THE EMPEROR HENRY VI.
The Emperor Henry VI . Results of the Peace of Venice. Policy of Pope Lucius III . Marriage of Henry and Constance. Urban III's hostile attitude towards the Emperor. Gregory VIII and Clement III. Rebellion of Henry the Lion Election of Tancred of Lecce to the Sicilian. Situation in Sicily and South Italy. Demolition of Tusculum. Failure of Henry VI's first campaign in South Italy. Disturbances in Germany. Disputed election to the see of Liege. Insurrection against the Emperor. Imprisonment and release of Richard I . Closing years and death of Henry the Lion. Conquest of the Sicilian kingdom . Extent of Henry's Empire. Relations with the Eastern Empire Preparations for the Crusade. Plan for making the kingship hereditary. Negotiations with Pope Celestine III. Proposed concessions to the Papacy. Failure of the negotiations . Rebellion against the Emperor : his death. Judgment of contemporaries.

CH. XV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DUCHY OF NORMANDY AND THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.
Coronation of Earl Harold. 481 Normandy and England compared. 483 Normandy in the tenth century . 484 Duke Richard II . . ib. The duke's officers. 485 The ducal revenue. 486 The secular clergy . The lay baronies . 487 A typical Norman fief . 488 The system of knight's fees. 489 The peasantry . 490 Death of Richard II . Normandy under Robert I. 491 The minority of William the Bastard. 492 Feudal plots ; battle of Val-des-Dunes. 493 William and his kinsmen ; his marriage . 494 The acquisition of the county of Maine. 495 The Norman Church under William. 496 William prepares to invade England. 497 The strength of the Norman army . 498 Defeat of Harold Hardrada. 499 Battle of Hastings, 1066 500 The Normans advance on London . 501 William crowned . 502 Siege of Exeter. 503 Revolt of Edwin and Morkere. The harrying of the North. 504 Revolt of Hereward .. The Conqueror re-allots the soil of England. 505 The evidence of Domesday Book . 506 The rental of England in 1086. 607 The Crown lands. 508 The ecclesiastical fiefe. 509 The lay fiefs 510 Classification and tenure of the fiefs 511 The quotas of military service ....... 512 The under-tenants and the peasantry. 513 William's anti-feudal measures. 514 The King's Court. 515 Reform of the Church . Archbishop Lanfranc . 516 " William and the Papacy . — Invasion of Scotland . 517 Revolt of Maine . Peace with Anjou . 518 The rising of the Earls. Robert Curthose . Arrest of Bishop Odo. 519 The oath of Salisbury. 520 The Conqueror's death.

CH. XVI. ENGLAND, 1087—1154.
Accession of William Rufus. 521 Revolt of Odo of Bayeux . Ranulf Flambard. 522 Mowbray's rebellion . 523 Rufus invades Normandy ib, Rafus and Scotland : annexation of Cumberland . 524 Conquest of South Wales : the marcher lordships . 525 Anselm made primate . 526 The Council of Rockingham . Normandy mortgaged to Rufus . 527 His death. Accession of Henry I . The coronation charter . 528 Henry's marriage . 529 Duke Robert invades England . Banishment of Robert of Belleme and William of Mollain . . 530 Battle of Tinchebrai . 531 Anselm opposes Henry . The Investiture compromise . 532 Death of Anselm . Robert of Salisbury organises the Exchequer . 533 The itinerant justices . 534 The Laga Eadwardi restated . 535 Henry and the baronage .. The ports and portmen. 537 The boroughs in 1086, and under Henry I . 638 The battle of Bre'mule 539 The succession problem . 540 Death of Henry I : Stephen claims the throne . 541 Stephen crowned : recognised by the Pope . 542 The opposition to Stephen . 543 Stephen in Normandy . Outbreak of civil war . 544 Battle of the Standard . Arrest of the bishops . 646 ' Matilda in England . Stephen creates earls . 646 Stephen captured . 647 Matilda driven from London . Mandeville holds the balance . 548 Matilda leaves England 649 Stephen and Eugenius III . 660 Geoffrey conquers Normandy . Geoffrey succeeded by Henry of Anjou . 551 Stephen makes peace with Henry . 552 Stephen's death ib. Character of his reign.

CH. XVII. ENGLAND: HENRY VII.
The kingdom secured. 664 Wales and Scotland. 666 Becket as Chancellor . 567 Becket as Archbishop . The Constitutions of Clarendon . 669 The quarrel renewed. 561 Becket's flight 562 The recouciliation . 563 Becket's murder . 564 Ireland. 565 Terms of Henrys absolution. 566 Reasons for the rebellion of 1173 — 74. 567 Balance of parties . 568 First summer of rebellion. 569 Second summer of rebellion . 570 Its suppression 571 Henry's death 572 Twofold division of the reign. I The Exchequer and the Barons of the Exchequer . I The justiciar . Chancellor, Treasurer, and curiales. I The Sheriffs I Local justiciars . 584 Judicial experiments . 585 Centralisation of justice. -586 The Grand Assize. 587 Procedure • 588 The Possessory Assizes and Final Concords . 589 The Carto of 1166. 590 Conclusion.

CH. XVIII. FRANCE: LOUIS VI AND LOUIS VII (1108—1180).
Louis VI 592 Anarchy in the royal domain . 593 Struggle of Louis VI with the lesser barons. 594 Subjugation of Thomas of Marie ....... 595 Order re-established in the royal domain . 596 Louis VI and the great fiefs 597 The king's intervention in the Bourbounais and Auvergne . 598 The question of the succession to Flanders . 599 Louis VI and the Anglo-Norman kingdom . 601 Struggle with Henry I of England . 602 Negotiations for peace . 603 Death of Louis VI . . . 604 The early years of Louis VII . 605 Struggle with Count Theobald of Champagne . 606 Conquest of Normandy by the Count of Anjou . 607 Louis VII on crusade . Eleanor's divorce and re-marriage . 609 Henry Plantagenet becomes King of England . 610 Louis VII betroths his daughter to Henry the Younger . 611 Henry II of England occupies the Norman Vexin . 612 Louis VII protects Becket 613 Further progress of Henry II. Increase of royal power under Louis VII. Louis VII supports Pope Alexander III The interview at St Jean-de-Losne. Failure of negotiations with the Emperor. Organisation of the central government. Suger, Abbot of St Denis.

CH. XIX. The Communal Movement, especially in France.
General definition of Commune. Communes jurees . Consulates . Villes de bourgeoisie. Bastides and Villes-neuves. Rural communities Roman influence . Germanic influence. Royal influence. Ecclesiastical influence . The Crusades. Commercial influence . Growth through struggle. Peaceful development . Economic progress Serfdom and the towns . The lords and the towns. The influence of geography. The influence of wealth and prosperity. International character of the movement. German and Italian towns. Independent growth of the communes. AflSliation of communes Communal groups Rural communes . Common property as a bond of union. Common rights and duties The colonges of Alsace . Valley communes of the Pyrenees. General conclusions.

CH. XX. The Monastic Orders.
The Rule of St Benedict. St Benedict of Aniane . The Council of Aix-la-Chapelle, 817 Carolingian monasticism. Foundation of Cluny. Odo of Cluny . The Cluniac and kindred movements. Odilo of Cluny . Cluny and the Papacy. Influence of Cluny on monasticism. The Order of Canialdoli. La Cava, Vallombrosa, and Grandmont. St Bruno and the Grande-Chartreuse. The Carthusian Order . Fontevrault. Foundation of the Cistercian Order. The Charter of Charity . The Cistercian Constitution Cistercian lay-brothers . Growth of Cistercianism. Canons regular Augustinian Canons. The Premonstratensian Order. Double monasteries. The Order of Sempringham. Military Orders and Orders of canons. Orders and Congregations. The Fourth Lateran Council, 1215. Monasticism in the thirteenth century. Causes of the decline of discipline. Later Orders in Italy. The Benedictine Constitutions, 1336 and 1339. State of learning in monasteries. Evidence of visitation documents. The later days of monasticism. Development of the congregational system. The Congregation of Windesheim . Fifteenth-century attempts at reform. The Reformation and monasticism.

CH. XXI. ROMAN and CANON LAW in the Middle Ages.
Origins in antiquity. Periods of Roman legal history. Ius civile and Ius gentium. Spread of Roman Law in ancient times. Survival of non-Roman laws . Legal characteristics of the Middle Ages. DiiFusion of Roman legal texts. Differences between Civil and Canon Law. Eastern and Western Canon Law . Ius antiquum and Jus novum . Eastern collections of canons. Western collections of canons. The False Decretals. Canonical collections before Gratian. Gratian's Decretum. The Corpus Iuris Canonici. Eastern and Western legal history. Roman and Canon Law in the East. Juristic studies. The 'Eklogn'. The Basilics. Graeco-Roman Law Greek Canon Law . Leges Romanae and leges Barbarorum Alaric's Breviary . Lex Romana Burgundionum . Edictum Theoderici. Lex Romana canonice compta . The Germanic codes Burgundian and Visigothic codes The Frankish Capitularies. German and Roman legal foundations. Roman Law in Italy Roman influence on Lombard law. Ecclesiastical influence on secular law. Legal studies in the West The Italian law-schools . Rise of the Bolognese school . Manuscripts of Justinian's law-books. The Glossators. The Commentators. Bartolus of Sassoferrato. Influence of humanism on legal studies. Study and teaching of Canon Law . Roman and Canon Law in Spain. Roman and Canon Law in France. 748 Legal growth in Germany . 762 Switzerland and the Netherlands. 765 Roman and Canon Law in England. 766 Conclusion.

CH. XXII. Medieval Schools to c. 1300.
Schools of rhetoric . 765 Clerkship and the tonsure . 767 Child lectors. 768 Episcopal schools . 769 The Dark Ages. 770 Early Frankish schools . 771 Early monastic schools . 772 Charlemagne's palace school . 773 Alcuin 774 Theodulf of Orleans. Post-Carolingian episcopal schools. 776 Chartres . 778 External monastic schools.

CH. XXIII. Philosophy in the Middle Ages.
NeoPlatonism. Aristotleanism. Character of Ancient Philosophy. 780 Philosophy and Theology. 781 The medieval problems. 782 The Latin world. 783 The Carolingian Renaissance . 784 John the Scot . Character of Christendom . 788 Medieval knowledge of Plato and Aristotle . 789 The influence of Macrobius . 790 Importance of dialectic . The tenth century . 791 Lanfranc. 792 Peter Damian . The work of Anselm . Realism and Nominalism . 794 Roscelin. 796 The position of Abelard.796 Hugh of St Victor. 800 Peter the Lombard. 803 John of Damascus . 805 John of Salisbury . The new Aristotelian logic . 808 The School of Chartres. 809 , Intellectual progress in the twelfth century . 810 The new Aristotle at Paris . 811 Translations from Greek and from Arabic. Roger Bacon. 813 Muslim influence . 814 Farabi and Avicenna. 816 Algazel, AverroeSj Avencebrol . 817 Aristotelianism and the University of Paris . Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, and Averroism . 818 Siger of Brabant. 821 Opposition to Thomism . 822 Philosophy and the Church . 823 The relation of reason to faith . 824 Roger Bacon's philosophy. 825 The final aim of medieval philosophy . 827 Duns Scotus . The coming revolutions in thought . 829

Chronological Table of Leading Events
Index

LIST OF BIBLIOGRAPHIES

LIST OF MAPS. (See separate portfolio.)
48. Germany under Frederick Barbarossa, c. 1190. Inset: Welf lands and duchies before 1159. 49. Italy under the Hohenstaufen. 50. Southern Italy and Sicily in the Twelfth Century. 51. Latin states in Syria. Inset: The dominions of Saladin, and the Third Crusade. 52. Northern Italy in the Hohenstaufen period. 53. Teutonic penetration of Slav lands, and development of towns in Eastern Germany to 1197. 54. England and Normandy, c. 1070. 55. The dominions of Henry II, Plantagenet. 56. Routes of the principal Crusades. Inset: The neighbourhood of Antioch and Latiqiyah.

THE CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY
VOL. V. THE EMPIRE AND THE PAPACY

INTRODUCTION.

The century and a half, roughly from 1050 to 1200, with which this volme is concerned, follows on from a period when the disorganisation and anarchy of the ninth century had barely been made good. Order had to some extent been restored; the desire for order and for peace was at any rate widespread. he opportunity for fruitful development, both in the sphere of ecclesiastical and of and of secular government, and also in those pursuits which needed peace for their prosecution, such as culture and commerce had now arrived. We have to deal then, with a period, on the one hand of new movements and new ideas - the appearance of new moastic orders, a renaissance of thought and learning, the rise of towns and the expansion of commerce; on the other a consolidation and centralisation - the organisation of the monarchial government of the Church, the development of monarchial institutions in the various countries of Europe, and, to give direction and solidity to the whole, the revived study of Civil and Canon law. Finally, and most novel of all, we see Europe at once divided by the great conflict of Empire and Papacy and united by the Crusades in the holy war against the infidel. The former as well as the latter implies a conception of the unity of Western Christendom, a unity which found expression in the universal Church. For the Church alone was universal, European, international; and, as its institutions begin to take more definite form, the more deeply is this chracter impressed upon them.

The volume opens with a chapter on the reform of the Church, which was not merely a prelude to, but also a principal cause of , the striking events that followed; for int the work of reform the Papacy both developed its own organisation and was brought into conflict with the secular power. In the first half of the eleventh century, it had been entirely dominated by the secular interests of the local nobles. It had been rescued by the Emperor Henry III, and Pope Leo IX had immediately taken his natural place as leader of the reform movement. When he undertook personally, in France, Germany and Italy, the promulgation and enforcement of the principles of reform, he made the universality of Papal power a reality; the bishops might mutter but the people adored. The Papacy was content to take a subordinate place while Henry III was alive; Henry IV's minority worked a complete change. The first great step was the Papal Election Decree of Nicholas II, and, though the attempt of the Roman nobles to recover their influence was perhaps the immediate cause, the Papacy took the opportunity to shake off imperial control as well. An opening for interference still remained in the case of a disputed election, as was clearly shown in the contest of Inocent II and Anastasius II, and especially in that of Alexander III and Victor IV. This gap was closed by the Third Lateran Council in 1179, which decreed that whoever obtained the votes of two thirds of the cardinals should be declared Pope.

The Papal Election Decree had a further result. By giving to the cardinals the decision at an election, and reducing other interests to a merely nominal right of assent, it raised the College of Cardinals to a position of the highest importance. There was normally at this time 7 (later 6) cardinal-bishops, 28 cardinal-priests, and 18 cardinal-deacons, and, unless they were employed on Papal business, their functions were confined to Rome. Leo IX had surrounded himself with cardinals who were reformers like himself; they composed the chief element in the Pope's Council, or, as it came to be called, the Curia. But he could not find them in Rome, and had to recruit them from the chief reforming centres, espcially north of the Alps. As they were, and continued to be, drawn from different countries, so in them was displayed the international character of the Roman Church; and from their number, in almost every case, was the Pope elected. A further development came when Alexander III instituted the practice of including bishops from different parts of Europe among the cardinals; for the regular duties and residence was no longer Rome itself.

The freedom of episcopal elections in general was in the forefront of the reform programme. The Papal policy was to restore canonical election "by clergy and people," a vague phrase which received its definition at Rome in the Election Decree. During the twelth century a similar definition was arrived at for other sees. The cathdral chapter, helped by its corporate unity, and especially by the fact that it constituted the permanent portion of the bishop's concilium and that its consent wa necessary in any disposition of the property of the see, established itself as the electoral body. To the clergy of the diocese and the lay vassals of the see was left, as at Rome, only the right of assent and acclamation. The chapter thus became the local counterpart of the College of Cardinals. The Papacy was principally concerned with the freedom of elections, and did not yet claim the right of appointment for itself, except in cases of dispute. The Third Lateran Council, which gave the decision at a Papal election to a majority vote, expressly decreed that elsewhere the old rule of the "maior et sanior pars" was to hold good; for, with the exception of Rome, there was a higher authority which could decide in cases of dispute.

Leo IX had initiated the campaign of reform at Council in France and Germany. The councils over which the Popes presided passed decrees which were to be universally binding. Usually they were held in Rome, and regularly in Lent by Gregory VII. In them, besides the Curia, any leading ecclesiastic who happened to be at the Papal court, whether on a visit or in obedience to a personal summons, took part, just as the nobles did in a king's Council. A further development occured in the twelth century. Hitherto all the Councils recognised by the Western Church as Ecumenical had taken place in the East. The schism of 1054 had cut off the Greek Church from communion with Rome, and in the twelth century three Councils were held, each of them at Rome in the Lateran basilica, which, owing to the importance of their business and the general rather than particular summonses which were issued, were included later among the Ecumenical Councils. The Frst Lateran Council in 1123 ratified he Concordat of Worms, the Second in 1139 solemnised the end ofa schism, and the Third in 1179 the end of another and greater one.

The next step was the local enforcement of the Papal decrees. The Church had its local officials - archbishops, bishops, etc. - and they were expected both to promulgate the decrees at local synods and to enforce their execution. It soon became clear that the bishops regarded themselves as anything but the docile officials of the central government, and the Papacy had to establish its authority and to work out a coordinated system of government by which its policy could be carried into effect. First of all, for the Pope could no longer do everything in person like Leo IX, legates were sent to actin his name, travelling about, like the Carolingian missi, with over-riding authority, to investigate the local churches and put into force the Papal decrees. The appointment of legates for this general work tends more and more to take a permanent form, and soon the post of permanent legate - a position of high honour and at the same time of personal responsibility to the Pope - becomes the prerogative of the leading ecclesiastics in each country. But the Pope still continued to send legates from Rome, both as ambassadors to temporal sovereigns and as functionaries with special commissions; these legates a latere as direct Papal agents again had over-riding powers. It was not sufficient, however, for the Pope to control the local officials through his representatives. He insisted on their personal contact with himself. Visits ad limina were first of all encouraged and then directly ordered, and archbishops wee expected to receive the pallium from the Pope in person.

It is impssible to say how far at any time this development of Papal authority was deliberate, and how far it arose out of the practical exigencies of the moment. It became conscious at any rate with Gregory VII, though even with him the moving cause at first was to enforce the principles of reform. Opposition, whether from the local officials or from the lay power, led to a definition of the bases on which this authority rested and the sphere within which it could be exercised. The decretals, especially the Forged Decratals, provided a solid foundation, and to build upon this came oppotunely the revived study of the Canon Law. It is not a question of a finshed legal system, but of a continuous process of construction, in which the legal training of Popes like Urban II and Alexander III was of great value. Collections of Decretals and opinions , of which Gratian's was the most complete, were continually being added to by the decrees of Roman Councils and the decisions of Popes given in their letters. This led to unformity in ritual also, to the victory of Roman use over local customs; for here again it was the Roman that was to be universal.

In the Papal government, even on its ecclesiastical side, there is a general resemblance to the secular governments of the day. Like a lay monarch, the Pope was concerned with the organisation of central and local government, with the formation of a legal system, and with the recognition of his overriding jurisdiction. When we come to thesecular side of Papal government, the resemblance is still more close. Both as landlord and overlord the Pope acted as any secular ruler, though payments in money and kind are the usual services rendered to him, rather than military service; for this he was really dependent on external assistance, The problem of finance faced him, as it faced every secular ruler. The work of government, both ecclesiastical and secular, involved the expenses of govrnment, and, though in ordinary times the revenue from the Papal States might be sufficient, a period of conflict, by increasing expenditure or by preventing the Pope from obtaining his ordinary revenues, would create serious financial difficulties. This was especially the case with Urban II, and still more with Alexander III, in the crisis of the conflict with the Empire; and, inthe interval of peace, the Pope was seriously embarassed by the sustained effort of the Roman people to obtain self-government.

We have a detailed account of various sources of Papal revenue at the end of our period in the Liber Censuum drawn up under the direction of the camerarius Censius, afterwards, Pope Honorius III, in the year 1192. Besides the revenue from the Papal domain proper, a census was received: (1) From monasteries who had placed themselves under the Papal "protection," and who in the course of the twelth century gained exemption from the spiritual as well as the temporal control of their diocesans; (2) From some lay rulers and nobles, who put themselves under Papal "protection" or, like the kings of Aragon and the Norman rulers of South Italy and Sicily, recognised Papal overlordship; (3) in the form of Peter's Pence, from England since Anglo-Saxon times, and, in the twelth century, from Norway, Sweden, and some othercountries as well. But the census provided only a relatively small revenue, and this was difficult to collect; there were frequent complaints of arrears of payment, especially with regard to Peter's Pence. On the other hand, the Papal expenditure was often heavy. Alexander III had frequently to have recourse to borrowing; and his complaints about some of his creditors seem to have an echo in the decree against usury at the Third Lateran Council. In its difficulties the Papacy had to depend upon the voluntary offerings of the faithful, especially from France, on subsidies from the Normans, or on the support of a wealthy Roman family; thus the Pierleoni constanty supplied the Popes with money, until one member of the family, Anacletus II, was defeated in his attempt o ascend the Papal throne. We are still in the early days of Papal financial history. Not yet were the visitation offerings from Bishops made compulsory, and the servitia taxes and annates had not yet been introduced. Nor did the Popes claim the right to tax the clergy, though perhaps the first step to this was taken in the second half of the twelth century, when prohibitions were against the taxation of the clergy by lay rulers without Papal consent. At any rate the desire to finance the Crusades soon led them to assert the right.

As the reform movement had led directly to the creation of a centralised government of the Church, so too it led, almost inevitably, to the contest for supremacy between the Papacy and its counter-part on the secular side, the Empire. Those ecclesiastics whom the Pope expected to be his obedient officials in the local government of the Church were already obedient officials of the Empire both in its central and its local government. The Pope was strong ground in insisting that the spiritual duties of the bishop were his primary consideration. But the Emperor was on strong ground too. The ecclesiastical nobles were an essential part of the economic framework and the political machinery of the Empire, and to justify his authority over them the Emperor could point to an almost unbroken tradition. The relative importance of spiritual and temporal consideration in the medieval mind gave an initial advantage to the Pope, and in the end the victory. On the other hand, the Emperor could appeal not only to iron law of necessity, but to the medieval reverence for custom and precedent. Henry IV, moreover, could not forget that the Papacy had itself been subject to his father, and it was his obect to recover what he considred to be his lawful authority. With this aim he deliberately provoked the constest. The details of the struggle are described in several chapters in this volume, and need only be briefly alluded to here. Henry's challenge was taken up by his greater opponent, Gregory VII, who in his turn claimed the supreme power for the Papacy; there could be no real peace until the questin of supremacy was settled. Though on this issue the first contest was indecisive, the Papacy registered a striking advance. The Concordat of Worms marked a definite limitation of imperial authority over the ecclesiastical nobility, andit was followed by the reigns of Lothar III and Conrad III, when the German ruler was too complaisent or too weak to press his claims. The Pope was embldened to take the offensive, and Hadrian IV threww down the challenge that was taken up by Frederick Barbarossa. The positions were reversed, but again the challenger found himself faced by a greater opponent, who again defended himself by asserting his own supremacy. Once more the result was indecisive. The Pope had a single cause to maintain, the Emperor a dual one. Henry IV was defeated by a revolt in Germany, Frederick Barbarossa by revolt in Italy, and both alike had been forced to recogise the impossibility of maintaining a subservient anti-Pope. But the greatness of Frederick was never so conspicuous as in his recovery after defeat, and his son Henry VI seemed to be on the point of making the Empire once more supreme when death intervened to ruin the imperial cause. Herein was revealed the second great asset of the Papacy. Built on the rock of spiritual power, the weakness or death of its head was of little permanent moment. The Empire, however, depended on the personality of each of its rulers, and the transference of authority on the deaths of Henry III and Henry IV was on each occasion disastrous. During the minority of Henry IV, the Papacy had built up its power, in the minority of Federick II, Innocent III was Pope.

In this struggle of Empire and Papacy, no insignificant part was played by the Norman rulers of south Italy and Sicily, whose history falls exactly within the compass of this volume. Frequently did they come to the help of the Papacy in its extremity, and skillfully did they make use of Papal exigencies to improve their own position. Only once did the Pope whom they supported failed to maintain himself; and the victory of Innocent II over Anastasius II, chosen y a majority of the cardinals and backed by Norman arms, was in many respects unique. Then, and then only, did Pope and Emperor combine against the Normans, but there was no stability in an alliance so unusual. In the Sicilian kingdom were displayed the peculiar characteristics of the Norman race - its military prowess and ferocity, its genius for administration, its adaptability and its eclecticism. They brought from Normandy the feudal customs they had there acquired, but they maintained and converted to their use the officials and institutions, the arts and sciences, of the races they conquered - Italian, Greek and Arab - each of which was tolerated in the use of its own language, religion and customs. The court of Roger II at Palermo presented an appearance unlike anything else in the West; and the essential product of this extraordinary environment was "the wonder of the world," Frederick II. The Normans pieced together a most remarkable mosaic, but they never made a ation of their subjects; the elements were too discordant, and they themselves too few. They remained a ruling caste, and then, as the royal house, once so prolific, gradually became sterile. Frederick Barbarossa seized the opportunity to marry his son Henry VI to the heiress Constance and to unite the crowns of Germany and Sicily. But, though the Norman rulers had disappeared, their deeds survived; for their own purposes they had recognised Papal overlordship and received from the Pope their titles as dukes and kings. By so doing they added materially to the temporal authorit of the Papacy, and created the situation which made so bitter the conflict of Empire and Papacy in the thirteeth century.

As the Normans exercised an important influence on the great struggle which divided the unity of Europe, so did they also have a decisive effect upon the other great struggle, in which Europe was united against the infidel. The story of the Crusades is described in this volume from the Western pont of view, and it has already been told from the Eastern standpoint in volume IV. Its importance in world history, and also in the more limited field of European history, need not be stressed here; but it is worth while to characterise the different interests involved, and to regard the Crusading movement in its proper setting, as an episode in the general history of the relations of East and West. It was not merely a holy war between Christian and Muslim. The Seljuqs, already in decline and hampered by internal divisions, were concerned with the effort to maintain what they had won. The Eastern Empire was concerned firstly with the defence of its existence, secondly with the recovery of Asia Minor. The Latins, to whom they appealed for help, were interested rather in Syria and Palestine, to which they were equally attracted by religious enthusiasm and the prospects of territoty or trade. Europe also had its own injuries to avenge. It too had suffered from Saracen invaders, against whom it was now beginning to react - in the advance of the Christian kingdoms in Spain, in the Norman conquest of Sicily, in he capture of Mahdiyah by Genoa and Pisa in 1087. The Crusades were in one aspect, an extension eastwards of this reaction, a change from the defensive to the offensive. Against a common foe Eastern and Western Christians had a common cause, but the concord went no further. In the first place, seventeen years before the fatal battle of Manzikert, which had caused the Eastern Empire to turn to the West for aid, the great schism between the Eastern and Western Churches had already occurred. One of the results hoped for from the First Crusade was the healing of that schism, and to the western mind the obstinate perversity of the Greek Church made it as dangerous an enemy of the faith as Mohammedanism itself. And, secondly, the Normans in south Italy had conquered Greeks as well as Saracens, and their first advance eastwards was against Greeks, not against Saracens. Robert Guiscard, by his attack n the Eastern Empire in 1081 began the policy, which was continued by his successors and was adopted by the Emperor Henry VI as part of his Norman inheritance. In other quarters, too, the experiences of the first two Crusades created a body of opinion in favour of the conquest of the Eastern Empire as a necessary part of the whole movement. This opinion gatherd strength when the Eastern Emperor came to terms with Saladin to oppose the Western advance which was now a menace to both. Finally, Venice was alienated by the ambition of Manuel Comnenus and the folly of Andronicus, and from being the chief obstacle to Norman policy became its chief supporter. It was now the aim of the Crusaders to conquer the whole of the Near East, Christian and Muslim alike, and their first objective was Constantinople.

In the internal history of Europe this volume deals, outside Italy, with the three leading countries of France, Germany and England; the history of the outlying and more backward countries - Spain, Scandinavia, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary - is reserved for the next volume. In these three countries there was much that was similar, for the underlying ideas inherent in feudal society were common to them all. But similar conceptions prodced widely differing results. On the one hand, feudal society with its depe reverence for custom and tradition was much affected by local conditions and lapse of time. On theother hand, it was peculiarly sensitive to the workings of human nature, to the ambitions of individuals who tressed the priviledges and minimised the obligations arising from the idea of contract on which the feudal system was essentially based; it was poised on a delicate balance which the accident of death might immediately upset.

Introduction xv

In the secular governments, as in the ecclesiastical government of the Church, the trend is in favour of monarchy, and the rulers make, with varying success, a continual effort towards centralisation; but they were all at an initial disadvantage compared with the Pope. The success of the electoral principle might be fatal to monarchical authority; and the hereditary principle had its dangers too, in the event of a minority or the failure of a direct heir. The hereditary principle could not be applied to the Papacy, for which the electoral system worked as a means of continual development; for the cardinals, having no opportunity of obtaining an independent position apart from the Pope, had everything to gain as individuals and nothing to lose by electing the ablest of their number as Pope.

Monarchy was in the most favourable position in England, and here it was therefore the most successful. William I started with the initial advantage that the whole land was his by conquest, and to be dealt with as he chose. The Normans, here as in Sicily, displayed their genius in administration, their adaptability and eclecticism. The political feudalism they brought from Normandy placed the king in England in the strong position that, as duke, he had held in Normandy ; and he adopted what he found suitable to his purpose already existing — the manorial system, the shire and hundred courts, Danegeld. As it had been won by conquest, the whole land was royal domain. Wisely the king kept a large share for himself, though feudal dues and the precedent of general taxation made him less dependent on his own estates for revenue than were his French and German contemporaries. The lands he granted out were held directly from him, as fiefs on military tenure, liable to forfeiture and not transferable at will. No individual baron could match himself with the king or hope to establish an independent position. The king was not dependent upon the barons in the central government, nor were they, as on the Continent, all-powerful in local government. They were not officials but tenants-in-chief, and the strength of the Crown in local affairs is clearlv displayed in that the king not only appointed and dismissed the sheriffs at will, but also insisted on their attendance at his Court and a rendering of their stewardship at his Exchequer — just as the Pope insisted on the visits ad limina of his local officials, the archbishops and bishops. So too did royal justice penetrate through the country, with the system of inquests, writs, and itinerant judges; the local courts were maintained under royal control, and it was the baronial jurisdiction that suffered. Not that it was directly attacked; the kings were careful not to transgress the letter of the feudal contract. But they preserved their supremacy, and in [the] Church as well as in [the] State; moreover, in spite of

Introduction xvi

Henry I's dispute with Anselm and Henry II's long contest with Becket, they avoided any serious conflict with the Papacy. They were, from the English point of view, too much absorbed in their continental possessions, which involved long absences of the king and too heavy a burden on English resources. Yet still, at the end of our period, the monarchy is at the height of its power, both in England and on the Continent. A rapid decline set in with John, who not only lost most of his continental possessions but, by making the mistakes which the wisdom of his predecessors had avoided, entered into a serious conflict both with the Pope and with the united baronage.

France presents a complete contrast. In the eleventh century the French monarchy was almost helpless. The great nobles had become practically independent, and, unlike the nobles in Germany, had ceased to be even in theory royal officials. The king had to start de novo, and perhaps in the long run this was an advantage. He was not fettered by all those traditions of the past which hampered royal initiative in Germany, and the strongest of the fetters had rusted from disuse. The Capetians had enjoyed the supreme fortune of an uninterrupted succession ; the custom of two centuries hardened into a right; and the electoral privileges of the nobles gave way to the hereditary right of the eldest son. In this volume we deal only with the reigns of Louis VI and VII, during which the monarchy recovered from the weakness of the eleventh century and prepared the way for the great period which begins with Philip Augustus. The king had two assets: a domain, which though small was compact, and the potentialities inherent in the kingly office. Louis VI, by his wisdom in concentrating almost entirely on the former, was able eventually to make use of the latter. After a long series of petty wars, he overcame the brigand-nobles of the domain, and so established peace and order within it, made the roads safe for merchants and travellers, and made royal justice attractive. He had his reward in the appeals for his intervention that came from other quarters. So sure was his building that even Louis VII managed to add a few bricks to the edifice. The great vassals absorbed in their own domains ignored the central government, and the king, nmch to his advantage, was able to create a body of officials directly dependent upon himself. In local government he was confined almost entirely to the royal domain, but soon, by escheat and conquest, this was to become the larger part of France; the king reaped the advantage from the over-aggrandisement of his greatest vassal. Finally, one source of strength had grown out of past weakness. The Papacy in the eleventh century had succeeded in carrying out its reform policy more completely in France than elsewhere, because of the weakness

Introduction xvii

of royal opposition. On France, therefore, it could rely for welcome and a refuge, whatever the king's attitude, and frequently the Popes availed themselves of this. The result was that they came to depend, Alexander III in particular, on French support; this, as the king became powerful, meant the support of the French king, who soon attained a unique position among lay rulers in his relations with the Papacy.

In Germany the situation is much harder to assess; monarchy was firmly established, with a long tradition of power, but the king was handicapped by tradition as well, and still more by his imperial position. His Italian kingdom prevented him from concentrating upon Germany, while the long struggle with the Papacy gave the opportunity for the anti-monarchical forces in both countries to defeat his aims at centralisation. Another weakness was the lack of continuity. More than once already the king had left no son to succeed him, and twice again this happened within our period. So the hereditary principle was never established, and the grip of the electors tightened with each vacancy. The royal resources were distinctly inferior to those of the English kings, for a large part of the land was not held directly from the king and he had no power of instituting general taxation. The royal domain, in which in a sense must be included the ecclesiastical territories held from the king, was widely scattered, and the king was unable to concentrate on one area, as Louis VI did in France. Henry IV attempted this in Saxony, and was defeated by the Saxon revolt; Henry Vs attempt in the Rhine district was cut short by his death; Lothar III started with an extensive Saxon domain, but again a change of dynasty upset his plans ; Frederick Barbarossa, who added his Swabian domain to the Salian inheritance, was the most favourably placed of all, and he was the most powerful. He it was too who solved the problem of the duchies.

The German kings, while very powerful compared with their French contemporaries, were still hampered by the conditions to which the weakness of the ninth century had given rise, and from which they had never been able to shake themselves free. Germany had been saved from the fate of France in the ninth century by the tribal feeling, which prevented her from breaking up into small units. But the very cohesion of the tribal duchies was a handicap to the central authority. In the first place, tribal institutions and tribal customs were too strong to be overridden, and tended to make of Germany a federation rather than a nation ; and, secondly, the dukes, as leaders of the tribes, were a constant embarrassment to the king. Various expedients had been adopted, from Otto I onwards, to control them, but once again in the twelfth century they had risen, in Swabia, Bavaria, and Saxony, to a position little inferior to that

xviii Introduction

of their predecessors in the ninth century. The fall of Henry the Lion at last gave Frederick Barbarossa the opportunity, by partitioning the duchies, to destroy the old tribal units. The smaller units he could more easily control, but he did nothing to replace the tribal bond by a national bond, and so Germany became a federation of many small states in place of a few large ones. What stood in his way particularly was the status of the German nobility. Dukes, margraves, and counts remained in theory what they had once been in fact — royal officials, entrusted with local government and jurisdiction. These functions they now exercised by hereditary right, and themselves reaped the financial advantages. So, while the nobles could often interfere in the central government, the king, where he was not present, could not control the local government. One important change he did make, by which a landed status tended to supersede the official status. The first rank of German nobles, the principes, had included all holders of official titles, lay and ecclesiastical. After 1180, only those who held directly from the king were ranked as "princes." So, while the bishops and the abbots of royal abbeys retained princely rank (and were often, in a real sense, royal officials), only some sixteen lay nobles remained in the highest grade. The princes of Germany had the right of choosing the king; this right was now confined to a much smaller number, and already it was recognised that with a privileged few the real decision lay.

The elective system was becoming crystallised, and both Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI vainly attempted to combat it. Frederick was a great ruler himself, a great respecter of law, a great guardian of order. But, though he was successful in preserving order in Germany, he had to be present himself to enforce it. The local magnates, though with a landed rather than an official status, continued like the princes to exercise local control. No attempt was made by Frederick to imitate the English kings, to create a bureaucracy directly responsible to himself and by a system of itinerant justices to enforce locally the king's law and to make the king's justice universal. He was so scrupulous in his administration of feudal custom that it was hardly possible that he should contemplate such a change. It was the nobles who instituted the process against Henry the Lion, and it was they, and not the king, who reaped the results of his fall. In fact, there was no real effort at centralisation in Germany, and this was fatal to German unity and so to monarchy in Germany. Hitherto the political side of feudalism had been displayed in arrangements or conflicts between the king on the one side and the nobles on the other. But now, as the more settled state of things gave opportunity

Introduction xix

for the development of more peaceful pursuits, a third factor enters in with the rise of the towns. In this volume we are concerned with the political importance of these urban communities, and the economic history of the development and organisation of trade and industry, as well as of agricultural conditions, is reserved for later volumes. The king was naturally interested in keeping control of the towns, which provided useful sources of revenue: in England the leading boroughs were retained as royal boroughs by William I and were heavily taxed by Henry I; in Germany there were many royal towns, and, as most towns were under a bishop, royal control was usually maintained. The towns, for their part, were anxious to hold directly from the king, and were willing to pay the price. For the king alone could legally grant the privileges they coveted, and a strong monarchy was the best guarantee of the peace which was j so necessary a condition for the expansion of trade and industry. They were, therefore, naturally on the side of the king against the nobles, and often rendered him valuable support. The work of Louis VI in the royal domain was so much to their interest that we find the towns a constant ally of monarchy in France, though the kings until Philip Augustus were slow to recognise the advantage this gave them. In England, the support of London was one of Stephen's chief assets. In Germany, the assistance of the Rhine towns turned the tide in favour of Henry IV when his fortunes were at their lowest ebb, and he never lost their support. Henry V, depending at first on the nobles, had to throw over the towns, but he tried energetically, though not altogether successfully, to regain their support later on. The twelfth century was the great flowering period of corporate town-life in Germany, aided by royal grants of self-government. Frederick II in the thirteenth century handed the towns over to the nobles ; they were forced to depend upon themselves, and adopted the plan of leagues for mutual support and the furtherance of trade.

In the towns of northern and central Italy, for different reasons, this stage had already been reached in the twelfth century; the motives governing their actions, though the same as elsewhere, led to contrary results. The Italian towns had been accustomed to city-organisation from Roman times, and their geographical situation caused an earlier develop- ment of trade and greater prosperity than elsewhere in Europe. Some of them had already acquired charters and liberties in the eleventh century, and they found their opportunity when they were practically left to themselves by Lothar III and Conrad III. During this period they suppressed the local feudal nobility, who made peaceful trading impossible, and, getting rid of their episcopal lords, established themselves as self- governing communities. The royal power had not assisted them, and was

XX Introduction

now the only bar to complete independence. They had violated the sovereign rights of the Emperor, and such a breach with feudal law could only be made good by revolution. Frederick Barbarossa was entirely within his rights in enforcing at Roncaglia the recovery of the regalia. so important a source of revenue, which they had usurped. The towns justified themselves by success, and, though they consented to an outward recognition of imperial overlordship, the tie was too slender to affect their independence. But the league of Italian cities, its defensive purpose achieved, did not continue, as the later leagues in Germany, for the preservation of order and the mutual furtherance of trade. City rivalries and trade jealousies counterbalanced the bond of common interest, and the cities suffered from constant internal as well as external strife; the rise of oligarchies of wealth led to class struggles, and the competition of different crafts to conflicts between the gilds.

In an age when monarchical government, secular and ecclesiastical, was not only regarded as divinely instituted but was also the best guarantee of peace and order, the capacity of the ruler was of the first importance and attention is focussed upon individuals. The second half of the eleventh century is dominated by the personality of Pope Gregory VII, the second half of the twelfth by that of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In the middle period it is neither lay ruler nor ecclesiastical ruler, but a Cistercian abbot, St Bernard, who fills the centre of the stage ; and that this could be so is a sign of the effect on medieval life of spiritual considerations. It was the admiration felt for the holiness of his life, and his reputation as a great and fearless preacher, that gave St Bernard his extraordinary influence over his generation. He figures in several chapters in this volume, and his life-story provides an epitome of most of the leading features of contemporary human endeavour. It was an age of new monastic experiments, which were of great importance in the life of the Church ; for monastic reform had preluded, and constantly recurred to reinvigorate, the Reform of the Church as a whole. Not only did St Bernard's outstanding personality make Cistercianism the most popular Order of the day ; his ardent zeal put new life into the older Benedictine monasteries and materially assisted the beginnings of the other new Orders — Carthusians, Templars, Premonstratensians, Augustinian canons; particularly did he encourage the substitution of regular for secular canons in cathedral chapters. The twelfth century witnessed also a new wave of intellectual endeavour, and St Bernard was the arbiter on some of the leading questions of the day, including the condemnation of Abelard and Arnold of Brescia in 1140, and the less successful trial of Gilbert de la

Introduction xxi

Porree in 1147. In this way he exercised an unfortunate influence; his rigid orthodoxy made him immediately suspicious of a critical mind, and was more in place in combating the heresy which was already beginning to spread in the south of France.

In a larger sphere he also predominated. It was his decision in favour of Innocent II that settled the issue of the Papal schism following the death of Honorius II in 1130. It was his preaching that kindled the Second Crusade, and his influence that caused the Kings of France and Germany to participate in it; its disastrous failure reacted on his popularity but did not deter him from attempting to assemble a new crusade. He not only laid down rules of life for bishops, monks, secular clergy, and laity, but he dispatched admonitions and censures, in the plainest of language, to Popes, cardinals, and kings. Most interesting of all is the long lecture he addressed to Eugenius III on the duties of the Papal office — the De Consideratione. In this he develops a view of the extent of spiritual authority that did not fall short of the extreme conception of Gregory VII; he speaks of the plenitudo potestatis of the Pope and of the two swords, material as well as spiritual, belonging to the Church. But, on the other hand, he was quite emphatic that this power must be used for spiritual purposes only, and the idea of the Pope as a ruler is abhorrent to him. The Pope has a ministerium not a domination the Roman Church is the Mater not the domina of all the churches; the Pope's power is "in criminibus non in possessionibus." He is especially vehement against the increasing absorption of the Pope in the pomps and secular cares of his office, and though his treatise does not supply a very practical solution of the difficulties with which the Pope was faced, it does convey a timely warning, and in a sense a prophecy of the fate that was soon to overtake the Papacy.

CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF LEADING EVENTS MENTIONED IN VOLUME V.

325 First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea decrees canons for the whole Church.

[ 476 The fall of the western Roman Empire after the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, last emperor in the west. Partition of its former territory between the 10 smaller Teutonic kingdoms. See Vol. I. For the Eastern ROMAN (Byzantine) Empire, see Vol. IV.]

529-534 Publication of the Codex Justinianus.
766 Death of St Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz.
774 Pope Hadrian I gives the Dionysio-Hadriana collection of canons to Charlemagne,
c. 780 St Benedict founds the monastery of Aniane.
804 Death of Alcuin.
817 Council of Aix-la-Chapelle reinforces Rules of St Chrodegang and St Benedict of Aniane.
c. 850 The False Decretals forged.
851 John the Scot's De Praedestinatione.
910 Foundation of Cluny.
911 Foundation of the Duchy of Normandy by the treaty of St-Clair-sur-Epte.
927-941 Reforming activities of Odo, Abbot of Cluny.
954-994 Maiolus (Mayeul) Abbot of Cluny.
969 The Fatimid Caliphs annex Egypt.
994-1048 Odilo Abbot of Cluny.
996-1026 Richard II (the Good) Duke of Normandy.
1009 Profanation of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem by Hakim the Fatimid.

c. 1012 The Order of Camaldoli founded.
c. 1012 The Decretum of Burchard of Worms.
1012-1046 The Tusculan Popes.
1016 Arrival of the Normans in South Italy.
1027-1035 Robert I Duke of Normandy.
c. 1029 The Normans established in the county of Aversa.
1034-1037 The sons of Tancred d'Hauteville arrive in South Italy.
1035 (2 July) William the Bastard becomes Duke of Normandy.
1036 Death of Avicenna.
c. 1038 The Order of Vallombrosa founded.
1039 Accession of Henry III as King of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy.
1042 "Truce of God'' proclaimed in Normandy.
1046 Death of Richard of St Vaimes. Synod of Sutri. Deposition of Popes Gregory VI and Benedict IX.
(25 Dec.) Election of Pope Clement II (Suidger of Bamberg).

1047 Council of Rome (Jan.) declares simonists deposed [from Papal office]. William the Bastard's victory at Val-des-Dunes.
1049-1054 Leo IX
(Bruno of Toul) Pope.
1049-1109 Hugh Abbot of Cluny.
1049 (3 Oct.) Synod of Rheims.
1049-1061 Humbert Cardinal-bishop of Silva-Candida.
1053 (23 June) Pope Leo IX defeated by the Normans at Civitate.

1054 Schism of Eastern and Western Churches.
1055-1057 Victor II Pope.
1056 Accession of Henry IV.
The outbreak of the Pataria at Milan begins.
1057-1058 Stephen IX Pope.
1057-1072 Peter Damian Cardinal-bishop of Ostia.

Chronological Table 941

1058-1061 Nicholas II Pope. 1059 Submission of the see of Milan to the Papacy.
The Papal Election Decree (14 Apr.).
The Treaty of Melfi (Aug.).
Robert Guiscard recognised as Duke of Apulia.
Hildebrand appointed Archdeacon of the Roman Church.
1060-1108 Philip I King of France.
1061-1073 Pope Alexander II.
1061 The capture of Messina by the Normans.
c. 1063 First appearance of the Rule of St Augustine.
1064-1069 Promulgation of the Usatges of Raymond Berengar I, the earliest known feudal code.
1065 End of the minority of Henry IV of Germany (29 Mar.). The Seljuq Turks enter Syria.
1066 (5 Jan. ) Death of Edward the Confessor. (6 Jan. ) Earl Harold elected King of England.
(14 Oct.) Battle of Hastings. William the Conqueror King of England.
1068 Rebellion of Edwin and Morkere. Harrying of the North.
1070-1089 Lanfrauc Archbishop of Canterbury.
1071 Capture of Ban by Robert Guiscard (Apr.). End of the Byzantine power in Italy. Battle of Manzikert (26 Aug.).
The Seljuq Turks occupy Jerusalem.
Completion of the Conquest of England by the Normans.
1073 (22 Apr.) Election of Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrand).
(Aug.) Outbreak of the Saxon revolt
1074 (18 Jan.) Henry IV grants a charter to the citizens of Worms.
1075 Pope Gregory VII enunciates papal powers in the Dictatus Papae. The first Investiture decree. (9 June) Henry IV defeats the Saxons on the Onstrut.
1076 (24 Jan.) Council of Worms. Excommunication of Henry IV by Gregory VI. (16 Oct.) Diet of Tribur.
The Order of Grandmont founded by St Stephen.
1077 (Jan.) King Henry IV goes to Cauossa. Diet of Forchheim. Election of Rudolf of S wabia as anti-king
(13 Mar.). First English Cluniac monastery founded at Lewes.
1079 The appointment of Frederick, Count of Staufen, as Duke of Swabia founds the fortunes of the Hohenstaufen family.

1080 Final excommunication and deposition of Henry IV by the Pope. The Council of Brixen deposes the Pope and elects Guibert of Ravenna as anti-Pope Clement III (25 June). William the Conqueror refuses to do fealty to Pope Gregory VII.
Pope Gregory VII reconciled to Robert Guiscard at Ceprano. Death of the anti-king Rudolf.
Robert Guiscard begins attack on the Eastern Empire.

c. 1080-1130 General establishment of communes in the North Italian cities.
1081-1088 Count Herman of Salm as anti-king.
1084 Henry IV crowned at Rome by the anti-Pope Clement III.
(May) Sack of Rome by the Normans.
The Carthusian Order founded by Bruno of Cologne.
1085 (25 May) Death of Pope Gregory VII. (17 July) Death of Robert Guiscard.
1086 Compilation of Domesday Book.
1086-1087 Victor III Pope.
1087 Genoa and Pisa. capture Mahdiyah in Barbary.
1087-1100 William Rufus King of England.
1088 End of the Saxon revolt. Climax of the power of Henry IV in Germany.
1088-1096 Conquest of South Wales.
1088-1099 Urban II Pope.

942 Chronological Table

1090-1097 Henry IV's expedition to Italy.
1091 Completion of the Norman conquest of Sicily.
1092 Annexation of Cumberland and Westmorland to England. (Nov.) Death of Malik Shah.
1093 Revolt of Conrad in Italy.
1093-1109 Anselm Archbishop of Canterbury.
1095 (Mar.) Council of Piacenza.
(27 Nov.) Council of Clermont. Pope Urban II proclaims the First Crusade.
1097 (19 June) Surrender of Nicaea. (1 July) Battle of Dorylaeum.
1098 (21 Mar.) The Cistercian Order founded by Robert of Molesme. (3 June) Fall of Antioch.
(28 June) Defeat of Karbogha's army near Antioch, the turning-point in the history of the First Crusade.

1099 (15 July) Capture of Jerusalem.
(22 July) Godfrey of Bouillon chosen Prince of Jerusalem.
(12 Aug.) Defeat of the Egyptians near Ascalon; the last achievement of the First Crusade.
1099-1118 Paschal II Pope.
1100-1135 Henry I King of England.
1100-1118 Baldwin I King of Jerusalem.
1100 (Sept.) Death of the anti-Pope
Clement III. Coronation Charter of Henry I of England.
c. 1100 Irnerius, founder of the Glossators, teaches Roman Law at Bologna.
1103 Accession of Roger II, Count of Sicily.
1104 Revolt of Henry V against his father the Emperor Henry IV.
1106 (7 Aug.) Death of the Emperor Henry IV. End of the schism between the Empire and the Papacy.
(28 Sept.) Battle of Tinchebrai. The Order of Fontevrault approved by Pope Paschal II.
1107 (23 May) Council of Troyes. (Aug.) Henry I of England reconciled to Anselm ; English Investiture compromise.
1108-1137 Reign of Louis VI of France.
c. 1108 Practice of lay-investiture by the King of France lapses.
1110-1111 Henry V's expedition to Italy.
1111 Imprisonment of Pope Paschal II, and his concession of investiture; Henry V crowned Emperor.
1115 Revolt of Saxony. (25 June) Foundation of Clairvaux. (24 July) Death of the Countess Matilda of Tuscany.
1115-1153 St Bernard Abbot of Clairvaux.
1118-1119 Gelasius II Pope.
1118 (April) Excommunication of Henry V by Pope Gelasius II, and renewal of the schism between the Empire and the Papacy.
1118-1131 Baldwin II King of Jerusalem.
1119-1124 Calixtus II Pope.
1119 (23 Dec.) Pope Calixtus II confirms the Carta Caritatis of the Cistercian Order.
c. 1120 Foundation of the Orders of Templars and Hospitallers.
1120 Foundation of the Premonstratensian Order.
1121 Condemnation of Abelard at Soissons.
1122 (23 Sept.) The Concordat of Worms reconciles the Empire and the Papacy.
1123 First Lateran (Council.
1124-1130 Honorius II Pope.
1125 (23 May) Death of tlie Emperor Henry V.
1125 (30 Aug.) Lothar of Supplinburg elected to the German kingship as Lothar III.

Chronological Table 943

1127 (2 Mar.) Charles the Good, Count of Flanders, murdered at Bruges. Death of William, Duke of Apulia. Conversion of the Wends recommenced.
(Dec.) Conrad of Hohenstaufen elected anti-king at Spires.
1128 (June) Marriage of the Empress Matilda to Geofirey Plantagenet. (Aug.) Roger II of Sicily invested with the duchy of Apulia by Pope Houorius II.
1130 Disputed election of Innocent II and Anacletus II as Pope. Count Roger II crowned King of Sicily at Palermo (25 Dec.).
1131 The Gilbertine Order founded at Senipringham in Lincolnshire.
1131-1144 Fulk King of Jerusalem.
1133 (1 June) Lothar III crowned as Emperor at Rome by Pope Innocent II.
1135 (Mar.) The Diet of Bamberg ends the conflict between the Emperor Lothar III and the Hohenstaufen.
Death of Henry I of England (1 Dec.). Succession of Stephen.
1136 Lothar III's second expedition to Italy.
1137 (4 Dec.) Death of the Emperor Lothar III
1137-1180 Reign of Louis VII of France.

1138 (25 Jan.) Death of the anti-Pope Anacletus II. (3 Mar.) Conrad III elected King of Germany.
(Aug.) Battle of the Standard near Northallerton.
1139 Second Lateran Council. Innocent II makes the Augustinian Rule compulsory on Canons Regular.
Matilda lands in England. Outbreak of civil war. (22 July) Pope Innocent II defeated and captured by the Normans at the battle of the Garigliano.
1140 Condemnation of Abelard at Sens at the instance of St Bernard.
1141 (2 Feb. ) Stephen taken prisoner at the battle of Lincoln.
(3 Mar.) The Empress Matilda proclaimed Queen of England. Death of Hugh of St Victor.
c. 1141 Compilation of Gratian's Decretum.
1143 Communal rising at Rome. Foundation of the new city of Lubeck.
1143-1144 Celestiue II Pope.
1144 (25 Dec.) The Muslims capture Edessa.
1144-1145 Lucius II Pope.
1144-1163 Baldwin III King of Jerusalem.
1145-1153 Eugenius III Pope.
1146 (31 Mar.) St Bernard preaches the Second Crusade at the assembly at Vezelay.
1147 Wendish massacre at Lubeck. The Wendish Crusade. Disasters to the Crusaders in Asia Minor.
1148 Matilda leaves England. (July) Defeat of the Crusaders before Damascus. Trial of Gilbert de la Porree before the Pope at Rheims.
c. 1148 The De Consideratione of St Bernard.
1150 Henry becomes Duke of Normandy.
1151 (13 Jan.) Death of Suger, Abbot of St Denis.
(7 Sept. ) Death of Geoffrey Plantagenet Henry of Normandy succeeds to Anjou and Maine.
1152 (15 Feb.) Death of Conrad IIL (4 Mar.) Election of Frederick Barbarossa as King of Germany at Frankfort.
(May) Marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry of Anjou.
1153 (Mar.) Treaty of Constance between Frederick Barbarossa and Pope Eugenius III. Occupation of Bona. Norman dominion in Africa reaches its greatest extent. (Nov.) Treaty of Wallingford between Stephen and Henry of Anjou.
1154-1155 (Oct.) Frederick Barbarossa's first expedition to Italy.

944 Chronological Table

1154 (25 Oct.) Death of Stephen of England.
1154-1166 William I King of Sicily.
1154-1159 Hadrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) Pope.
1154-1189 Henry H King of England. 1155 Execution of Arnold of Brescia.
(18 June) Frederick Barbarossa crowned Emperor at Rome by Pope Hadrian IV.
1156 (28 May) The Normans defeat the Byzantines at Brindisi. Treaty of Benevento between the Kingdom of Sicily and the Papacy.
(17 Sept.) Diet of Ratisbon establishes the power of Henry the Lion and creates the duchy of Austria.
1157 (Oct.) Diet of Besancon.

1158 Peace between the Emperor Manuel and William I, King of Sicily.
(July) Second expedition of Frederick Barbarossa to Italy. Surrender of Milan. Diet of Roncaglia.
1159 Revolt of Milan. (7 Sept.) Disputed election of Alexander III and Victor IV as Pope.
1160 (Jan.) Capture of Mahdiyah. End of the Norman dominion in Africa. (Feb.) Synod of Pavia. Frederick Barbarossa recognises the anti-Pope Victor IV.

1160-1162 Final subjection of the Wends by Henry the Lion
1162 (Mar.) Capture and destruction of Milan by Frederick Barbarossa.
Becket appointed Archbishop of Canterbury.
1163-1174 Amaury I King of Jerusalem.
1164 (Jan.) Constitutions of Clarendon. (Apr.) Death of the anti-Pope Victor IV.
The Order of the Knights of Calatrava approved by Pope Alexander III.
c. 1164 Death of Peter the Lombard.
1165 (23 Nov. ) Pope Alexander
III enters Rome supported by Norman troops.
1166 Assize of Clarendon. The Carta of Henry II of England.
1166-1168 Frederick Barbarossa's fourth expedition to Italy.
1166-1189 William II King of Sicily.
1167 Beginnings of the Lombard League. Milan rebuilt.
(24 July) Frederick Barbarossa begins the siege of Rome.
(Aug.) The German army driven from Rome by pestilence.

1169 Conquest of Egypt for Nur-ad-Din of Damascus.
1170 The Inquest of Sheriffs. (Aug.) Strongbow lands in Ireland.
(29 Dec.) Murder of Becket in Canterbury Cathedral.
c. 1170 Rise of the Universities.
1171 Foundation of the Order of the Knights of Santiago.
1171-1172 Henry II visits Ireland, and receives general submission,
c. 1172 Writing of the Roman de Rou.

1173-1174 Rebellion in England.
1174-1177 Frederick Barbarossa's fifth expedition to Italy.
1174-1185 Baldwin IV King of Jerusalem.
1174-1193 Reign of Saladin.
1176 (29 May) Defeat of Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano. Treaty of Anagni between the Emperor and the Pope.
End of the Papal schism. Assize of Northampton.
1177 (23 July) Treaty of Venice.
1179 (Mar.) Third Lateran Council. The Grand Assize (of Windsor).
1180 (13 Apr.) Diet of Gelnhausen. Partition of the Duchy of Saxony.
(24 June) Diet of Ratisbon. Partition of the Duchy of Bavaria. Death of John of Salisbury.
1181 Henry II's Assize of Arms.

Chronological Table 945

1181 Submission and exile of Henry the Lion.
1181-1185 Lucius 111 Pope.
1183 (June) The Peace of Constance.
1184 Diet of Mayence. (Sept.) Frederick Barbarossa's sixth journey to Italy.
1185 Failure of William II of Sicily's invasion of the Eastern Empire.
1185-1187 Urban III Pope.
1185-1186 Baldwin V King of Jerusalem.
1186 (27 Jan.) Marriage of Henry VI of Germany to Constance of Sicily.
1187 (4 July) Defeat of the Christians in Syria at Hittin. (3 Oct.) Jerusalem taken by Saladin.
1187 (Oct.-Dec.) Gregory VIII Pope.
1187-1191 Clement III Pope.
1188 The Saladin Tithe.
1189 The Third Crusade.
(3 Apr.) Peace of Strasbourg between Pope and Emperor.
(May) Frederick Barbarossa goes on the Crusade.
(6 July) Death of Henry II of England.
(18 Nov.) Death of William II of Sicily.
1190 (Jan.) Tancred of Lecce crowned King of Sicily.
(10 June) Death of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Foundation of the Teutonic Order.
1191 (1-5 Apr.) Imperial coronation of Henry VI. Third Crusade. The Crusaders recover Acre (12 July).
(7 Sept.) Richard Coeur-de-Lion defeats Saladin at Arsuf.
1191-1198 Celestine III Pope.
1192 (June) Concordat of Gravina. Truce with Saladin.

1193 (14 Feb.) Richard Coeur-de-Lion surrendered to the Emperor by Duke Leopold of Austria.
(Feb.) Death of Saladin. The Knights of St John initiate the movement for a new Crusade.

1194 (3 Feb.) Release of Richard Coeur-de-Lion. (20 Feb.) Death of Tancred, King of Sicily.
(Mar.) Reconciliation between the Emperor Henry VI and the Welfs at Tilleda.
(2.5 Dec.) Henry VI crowned King of Sicily. End of the Norman dominion.

1195 (6 Aug.) Death of Henry the Lion.
1196 (Apr.) Diet of Wiirzburg. Henry VI attempts to make the German kingship hereditary.
(Dec.) His son Frederick chosen king at Frankfort.
1197 (28 Sept.) Death of the Emperor Henry VI.
1198 (12 Dec.) Death of Averroes.
1204 Capture of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade.
c. 1210 Latin translations from Aristotle's Metaphysics in the West.
1210 The study of certain books of Aristotle forbidden to the University of Paris.
1215 Fourth Lateran Council.
1219 The Fifth Crusade. (5 Nov.) The Crusaders capture Damietta. St Francis of Assisi in Egypt.
1221 Restoration of Damietta to the Saracens,
c. 1225 Composition of the Sacksenspiegel.
1226 The Teutonic Order undertakes the conquest of the heathen Prussians.
1228 Frederick II recovers Jerusalem.

[ 1232 Medieval Inquisition established by Pope Gregory IX and the Emperor Frederick II.]

1234 Gregory IX's Collection of Decretals.
1244 (23 Aug.) The Khwarazmian Turks capture Jerusalem. (17 Oct.) Defeat of the Franks at Gaza.
1248-54 St Louis' First Crusade.

C. MED. H. - VOL. V.
946 Chronological Table

1250-1258 Bracton writes his De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae.
1252 William of Rubruquis sent on a mission to the Great Khan.
1253 Pope Innocent IV forms the first Missionary Society since the conversion of the West.
1254 Alfonso of Castile issues the Fuero Real.
1256-1265 Compilation of the Partidas.
c. 1260 Death of Accursius the Glossator.
1268 Capture of Jaffa and Antioch by the Mamluk Sultan Baibars.
1270 St Louis IX of France starts on his Second Crusade.
1273-1314 Missionary activity of Raymond Lull.
1274 (7 Mar.) Death of St Thomas Aquinas.
1277 Siger of Brabant condemned by the Inquisition of France.

1280 Death of Albert of Cologne (Albertus Magnus).
1286 Death of William of Moerbeke, the translator from the Greek,
1289 Capture of Tripolis by the Mamluk Sultan Qala'un.
1291 (18 May) Storm of Acre by the Mamluks. End of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
1294 Death of Roger Bacon.
1298 Boniface VIII's Decretals (the Sext).
1308 Death of Duns Scotus.
1335 Pope Benedict XII issues new constitutions for White monks (Cistercians).
1336 New constitutions issued for Black monks (Benedictines and Cluniacs).
1339 New constitutions issued for the Austin canons.
1357 Death of Bartolus of Sassoferrato, the Commentator.
1395 The Congregation (reformed Canons) of Windesheim founded in Germany.

[ 1300s The Avignon Papacy and then the Papal schism with 2 or 3 rival claimants to the Papal throne, at Rome and Avignon(?) ]

[ 1415 Jan Hus condemned and burnt at the stake as an heretic by the Catholic Church Council of Constance(?) after the Hussite Wars.]

1421 The reformed Benedictine congregation of Santa Giustina founded in Italy.
1430 William of Lyndwood finishes his Commentary on the provincial constitutions of the Archbishops of Canterbury.

[ 1453 Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans.]

1495 Erection of the Reichskammergericht and final Reception of Roman Law in Germany.

[ Note: 1492 Columbus sets sail for the Americas.
1517 Protestant Reformation begins after Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the door of Wittemburg Cathedral in protest at Papal corruption and the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church.
1540 Society of Jesus (Jesuit order) established by Ignatius Loyola and Pope Paul IV.(?)
1545 Council of Trent and the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation against Protestantism begins. ]

THE CAMBRIDGE MEDIEVAL HISTORY (8 Volumes) - J. B. Bury et al.
I. The Christian Roman Empire and the Foundation of the Teutonic kingdoms. 1911. --II. The rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western empire. 1913. --III. Germany and the Western empire. 1922. --IV. The eastern Roman Empire (717-1453). 1923. --V. Contest of Empire and Papacy. 1926. --VI. Victory of the Papacy. 1929. --VII. Decline of Empire and Papacy. 1932. --VIII. The Close of the Middle Ages. 1936.

Vol. I. THE CHRISTIAN ROMAN EMPIRE, AND THE FOUNDATION OF THE TEUTONIC KINGDOMS
1. Constantine and his city. 2. The Reorganization of the Empire. 3. Constantine's successors (to Jovian), and the struggle with Persia. 4. Triumph of Christianity (with account of other religions in the Empire, and including Julian's reaction). 5. Heresies (Arian controversy ; to 381). 6. Organization of the Church. 7. Expansion of the Teutons (retrospective, and to 378). 8. The Dynasty of Valentinian ; and Theodosius the Great. 9. The Teutonic Migrations. 10. Teutonic Kingdoms in Gaul (to death of Euric ; and accession of Chlodwig). 11. Teutonic Kingdoms in Spain and Africa. 12. (a) The Asiatic Background. (b) The Huns 13. Teutonic Conquest of Britain (to c. 600). 14. Italy to the revolution of Odovacar. 15. The Italian Kingdom (under Odovacar and Theodoric). 16. The Eastern Provinces (Arcadius to Anastasius I). 17. Religious disunion in the fifth century. 18. Monasticism. 19. Social and economic conditions. 20. Thought and ideas of the age (fourth and fifth centuries). 21. Christian Art.

Vol II. THE RISE OF THE SARACENS AND THE FOUNDATION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE
1. The Imperial restoration in the West. 2. Justinian. 3. Roman Law. 4 and 5. Gaul under the Merovingian Franks. 6, Spain under the Visigoths. 7. Italy under the Lombards. 8. Imperial Italy and Africa, (a) Administration. (b) Gregory the Great. 9. Justinian's successors, and the struggle with Persia, 10, Mohammad and Islam. 11 and 12. The Expansion of the Saracens. 13. The successors of Heraclius (to 717). 14. The expansion of the Slavs. 15. (a) Celtic heathendom. (b) Germanic heathendom. 16. Conversions of the heathen (Ireland, Scotland, England), (a) Germany. 17. England (to c. 800) and English Institutions 18. The Carolingian revolution and Frank intervention in Italy. 19. Conquests and Imperial coronation of Charles the Great 20. Foundations of Society (origin of Feudalism). 21. Legislation and administration of Charles the Great. 22. Growth of the Papal power (to Nicholas I). 23. Learning and Education.

Vol. III. GERMANY AND THE WESTERN EMPIRE
1. Lewis the Pious and the disruption of the Carolingian Empire. 2 and 3. The Carohngian Kingdoms (to 908). 4. The Vikings. 5. Germany; Henry I and Otto I. 6. Italy, to the Coronation of Otto I. 7. Otto II and Otto III. 8. Henry II and Conrad II. 9. Henry III and his ideals. 10. Germany and her Eastern Neighbors, 11. The Burgundian Kingdoms. 12. France : the last Carolmgians and the Capetian revolution. 13. France in the 11th century. 14. England, (800-1065). 15. Norman conquest of England. 16. William the Conqueror. 17. The Western Caliphate. 18. Feudalism. 19. Learning and Literature in Western Europe. 20. Romanesque architecture.

Vol. IV. THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
1. Leo III and the Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty. 2. From Nicephorus I to fall of the Phrygian dynasty. 3 and 4. The Basihan dynasty (867-1057). 5. The struggle with the Saracens. 6. Armenia (general sketch of whole period). 7. The Bulgian Kingdom. 8. The Empire and its northern neighbors (including Russia and Hungary). 9. Greek Church and relations with West (to 1054). 10. The Seljuks. 11 and 12. The Commeni. 13. Venice. 14. Fourth Crusade and the Latin Empire. 15. Greece and the Aegean under Frank and Venetian dominion. 16. The Empire of Nicaea and the recovery of Constantinople. 17. The Ottoman Turks. 18. Bulgaria, Servia, and the Roumans. 19. Attempts at reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches 20. The Mongols. 21. Advance of the Turks and fall of Constantinople. 22. Legislation. 23. Administration, including army and navy. 24. Byzantine culture.

Vol. V. CONTEST OF EMPIRE AND PAPACY - THE CRUSADES
1. (a) The Italian Cities; (b) The Norman conquest of Italy and Sicily. 2. Corruption of the Church: Cluniac movement. 3. Gregory VII and the Investiture Contest. 4. Civil and Canon Law. 5. Germany under Henry IV and Henry V. 6. (a) Islam and Egypt, (750-1097) ; (b) The First Crusade. 7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem. 8. The Monastic Orders. 9. Germany, (1125-1152). 10. Italy, (1125-1152). 11. Frederick Barbarossa and Germany. 12. (a) Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard League; (b) South Italy in the twelfth century. 13. England: Norman kings (William II to Stephen). 14. England: Henry II. 15. France and the Angevin dominion. 16. France and the Communal movement. 17. The Jews. 18. Scholasticism. 19. Effects of the Crusades on Western Europe.
[This might not precisely match the outline for Vol. V. above.]

Vol. VI. VICTORY OF THE PAPACY - THE ROMAN THEOCRACY
1. Henry VI. 2. Growth of the Papal power: Innocent III. 3. The struggle for the Empire (Philip II and Otto IV). 4. Frederick II : Germany. 5. Frederick II : Italy and Sicily. 6. The Fall of the Hohenstaufens (a) (Germany); (b) Italy. 7. Philip Augustus (and Louis VIII). 8. Louis IX. 9. England: Richard and John. 10. England: Henry III. 11. Spain. 12. Scandinavia (from middle of eleventh to end of thirteenth century). 13. Poland and Hungary (from middle of eleventh to end of thirteenth century). 14. Heresies and Inquisition. 15. The Mendicant Orders. 16. Universities and learning. 17. Commerce and Industry in the Middle Ages. 18. Chivalry 19. Architecture (a) Ecclesiastical; (b) Military, 20. Legendary cycles in the Middle Ages.

Vol. VII. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE AND PAPACY
1. The Empire (1272-1313). 2. Italy in the time of Dante. 3. Louis the Bavarian. 4. Charles IV and Bohemia. 5. Switzerland. 6. The Hansa. 7. The Teutonic order, Poland and Lithuania. 8. The Popes at Avignon and the Great Schism. 9. France : the last Capetians. 10. France : Hundred Years' War (First part). 11. France: Armagnacs and Burgundians. 12. England: Edward I and Edward II. 13. England: Edward III and Richard II. 14. Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. 15. (a) Wyclif (b) Hus. 16. The Councils of Constance and Basel. 17. Spain. 18. Assemblies of Estates. 19. Italian States in the fourteenth century. 20. Early Renaissance. 21. Mysticism. 22. Growth of towns in Western Europe.

Vol. VIII. THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES - GROWTH OF THE WESTERN KINGDOMS
1. The Hussite Wars. 2. The Empire in the 15th century. 3. Hungary. 4. The Papacy in the 15th century. 5. Italy. 6. Florence under the Medici. 7. Spain and Portugal. 8. France : Hundred Years' War (Second period). 9. France: Louis XI. 10. Burgundy, 11. Low Countries. 12. England: Lancastrians. 13. England : New Monarchy. 14. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. 15. Russia, 16. The Renaissance. 17. New theories of education. 18. Political theory. 19. Warfare 20. Magic, witchcraft, astrology in the Middle Ages.

Cambridge Medieval History, J Bury, table of contents, world history, Church history,  Christianity, medieval history, Holy Roman Empire, Papacy and the Empire